WRT333
End Punctuation | The Comma
Note: This page is based on Fowler and Aaron (2001)
End Punctuation
The period: Periods end sentences that are statements, mild commands, or indirect questions. An indirect question uses word and subject-verb order like a statement, not like a direct question: The teacher wanted to know why the student was late to school, not ...why was the student late to school.
Periods are also used with abbreviations involving small letters (Mrs., e.g., Ph.D.). Many abbreviations of two or more words using all capital letters (US or U.S., BA or B.A.) may be written either with or without periods, so long as the use is consistent.
The Question Mark: Question marks end direct questions. A question mark within a sentence (?) indicates doubt about the correctness of a number, date, or word.
Note. Question marks are never combined with other question marks, exclamation points, periods, or commas. Not She shouted, "Do you really care?!" but She shouted, "Do you really care?"
The Exclamation Point: Exclamation points are used after an emphatic statement, and interjection, or a command. Get over here right now! Never combine explanation points with other exclamation points, question marks, periods, or commas (!!, !?, !., or !,). Use them sparingly. Do not rely on an explanation point to express surprise, irony, or sarcasm; use word choice and sentence structure to express these attitudes.
The Comma
Commas separate (set off) elements of the sentence.
- Main clauses linked by a coordinating conjunction (for, and, or, so, but, nor, yet): My paper is written, but I haven't printed it.
- Introductory elements: Nevertheless, the earth moves.
- Nonessential elements (see next)
- Items in a series: He ate a sandwich, an apple, and a piece of cheese.
- Coordinate adjectives: She drove a cool, blue sports car.
Nonessential element: A nonessential element is part of a sentence that is not critical to the meaning of the sentence. It may modify or rename the word it refers to, but it does not limit the word to a particular individual or group. Because it does not restrict meaning, it is also called a nonrestrictive element). The elements are not essential, but they must be identified as such, and this is done by the comma. The Department, part of the College of Arts and Sciences, is one of the largest in the University. When nonessential elements occur in the middle of a sentence, set it off with commas before and after.
An essential element does limit the word it refers to: Students prefer programs with challenging courses. (If the element with challenging courses is left out, the sentence has little meaning; therefore, it is essential).
Phrases which begin with that or which may be distinguished: both essential and nonessential clauses may begin with which, but only essential clauses begin with that. She loved the book, which she kept near her bed, because it was one that her grandmother had given her.
Transitional phrases, which form links between ideas, are set off with commas. These phrases include conjunctive adverbs (e.g., however, moreover) and words like for example, and of course.
Parenthetical expressions, providing comments, explanations, digressions, or other nonessential extra information are set off with commas. These phrases include fortunately, in other words, to be frank, etc.
Absolute phrases: An absolute phrase modifies an entire main clause (not just a word in the clause), and it usually has a participle.
- A participle is a verb form showing continuing or completed action, used as an adjective or part of a verb phrase but never as the main verb
- Present participle: ends in -ing: The bridge is falling (part of verb is falling) | We all enjoy the autumn's turning leaves (used as adjective).
- Past participle: usually ends in -d, -ed, -n, or -en, but also may change verb spelling (slept, hung): We all have enjoyed a campfire (used as verb phrase) | The unspoken word nevertheless hung in the air (participle as adjective).
The University, already constrained by its budget, was told to absorb further state cuts.
Contrasts: Set off phrases expressing contrast. She had an irksome habit of favoring form, not substance.
Items in a series: Commas separate items in a series of three or more, including setting off the last one (never wrong, and preferable, in my mind): Breakfast included eggs, toast, and coffee.
Coordinating adjectives: Set off two or more adjectives that equally modify the same word: He bought a shiny, red car.
- Coordinate adjectives are those that can be reversed without changing meaning and can have the word and inserted between them without changing meaning.
Dates, addresses, place names, and numbers; Separate parts of dates, etc., with commas. Inside of sentences, any element preceded by a comma is also followed by one.
- Date: The twin towers fell on September 11, 2001. January 21, 2009, was the beginning of the Obama administration.
- Addresses: Providence, Rhode Island, is the State capital. There are 60,000 people living in Wakefield, Town of South Kingstown, Rhode Island.
- Long numbers: There are 5,280 feet in a mile.
Quotations: Separate words that identify the source (signal phrase) of a direct quotation. "I think, therefore I am," said Descartes.
If you break a quotation, follow the break with a comma, with the comma written inside the quotation marks, and the original quote punctuation following the interruption: "I think," said Descartes, "therefore I am."
Misuses of the Comma: Don't separate pairs of words (salt and pepper) with a comma. Don't use a comma after and, but, although, because, or another conjunction. Don't set off essential elements. Don't set off a series. Don't set off indirect quotations or single-word appositives.
Reference
- H. Ramsey Fowler and Jane E. Aaron. 2001. The LIttle, Brown Handbook. 8th ed. Longman. 968 p.