July 11, 2004

Digital Divide Research Paper

A New Definition of Literacy

Dictionary.com defines literacy the following 2 ways:

1. The condition or quality of being literate, especially the ability to read and write.
2. The condition or quality of being knowledgeable in a particular subject or field: cultural literacy; biblical literacy.

It is this second definition that is of the utmost importance concerning the digital divide in America. Computer literacy has become as vital to US inhabitants and its workers as the ability to read and write. The disadvantages that plague persons who cannot read or write have now begun to plague those who are unfamiliar with using computer technology. Low wages, fewer available jobs, and little opportunity for advancement combine with the increasing struggle to execute daily tasks for those who are not computer literate in America today.

This paper will examine the digital divide in the U.S. and why this new definition of literacy has come to be and will remain for the foreseeable future. Although the implications of the digital divide are global, for reasons of space constraints and clarity, the focus of this work will be within the U.S.  

Definition of Digital Divide

The following definition of Digital Divide comes from Dictionary.com:

ìThe gap between those who have computers with Internet access and those who do not, as well as the gap between those who are computer literate and those who are not.î 

Digital Divide and Race

ìA white, two-parent household earning less than $35,000 is nearly three times as likely to have Internet access as a comparable Black household and nearly four times as likely to have Internet access as Hispanic households in the same income category.î (National Telecommunications and Information Administration [NTIA], 2000, para. 41) This disturbing reality is also influenced by cultural and educational factors, and the composition of the household overall. Single parent households are less likely to have PCs and Internet access than dual parent households for all races, but the percentage of single parent white households with access is greater (NTIA, 2000).

The US Department of Commerce and the National Telecommunications Administration have published a series of four reports, titled Falling through the Net beginning in 1995 and continuing through October of 2000 that outline the facets and evolution of the digital divide in the U.S. Their findings note the disparity in technology access between those of white, middle class origins and those of minority and lower socio-economic class background. Using statistics obtained from the US Census bureau, they examine the problem as it occurs by racial and economic factors.

In the Introduction to Falling through the Net, Larry Irving, Assistant Secretary for Communications and Information Administrator, National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) U.S. Department of Commerce states ìMinorities, low-income persons, the less educated, and children of single-parent households, particularly when they reside in rural areas or central cities, are among the groups that lack access to information resources.î

Fortunately, there are several studies that indicate that the efforts of organizations promoting computer literacy may be paying off. Black and Hispanic households are now twice as likely to own PCs as they were in 1994 (NTIA, 2000). The digital divide for most minority groups continues to grow in comparison with whites, creating a racial divide, but all groups are showing increases in connectivity overall. Asian/ Pacific Islanders now exceed whites in their connectivity to the Internet and PC ownership (NTIA, 2000).  This increased connectivity is encouraging news, and may eventually impact poverty levels in the United States. From a statistical standpoint, this ìnewî literacy is on the rise (NTIA, 2000).

The effects of low computer literacy have become comparable to the effects of low general literacy. By examining the impact of general literacy levels on people and households, it is also possible to see the impact of computer literacy levels. For example, in the past 50 years, income inequality has grown, as has the trend of single parent households. This allows for fewer resources to be spent on the educational, information and technology needs of an already financially overburdened family (Robbin, 2000). In her article We the people: One nation, a multicultural society, Robbins calls for social activism on the part of librarians to address issues of minority disadvantage in the areas of literacy and information. She notes the importance of this particularly where government spending per pupil is comparatively lower than in more affluent areas and which tend to have the largest minority populations (2000). ìWhites and two-parent families experience primarily transitory poverty, but blacks and children born into poor families often experience long-term destitutionî (Levitan et al, 1998, p.16). Nine out of ten black children are expected to spend some part of their lives in a single parent home.

Statistically, these households are more ìeconomically vulnerable,î often due to lack of parental employment skills (Levitan et al, 1998, p.20). ìThe acquisition of job skills and work experience are often essential for workers seeking access to higher paying jobsî (Levtian et al, 1998, p.20). All these things are also factors that appear in households experiencing the digital divide. As Robbin argues, ìThe well-being of families also affects the well-being of societyî and ìThe key to ensuring economic security and well-being is parental educational attainmentî (2000). Computer skills are a vital component of this education and in the employability and financial security of heads of households.

One answer to this call for activism on the part libraries occurred when New York Public Libraries launched a promotional campaign, hired advertising professionals, and started targeting minority and traditionally underserved populations for computer training. They continue to offer free instructional courses that range from the basics of using a mouse to web design (Dalton, 2004). The libraries also utilize Internet links on the library webpage that are available in several languages in order to connect with minority patrons electronically.

Libraries are not the only non-profit establishments currently working to eradicate the divide. Some organizations believe the inequalities that exist between the haves and have-nots are so dire to future labor markets and societal well-being that they have formed intricate networks to combat it. One international membership organization dedicated to addressing the gap in technology and computer literacy is Community Technology Centers Network, which offers seminars and a detailed informational website to explore methods of lessening this digital divide. http://www.ctcnet.org/ (Servon & Nelson, 2001) Greater exploration of these endeavors will be presented in a following section, when sector responses to the digital divide are discussed.

Civil Rights and the Digital Divide

In Morseís article Ensuring the quality of educational opportunity in the digital age, he cites the landmark ruling in the case of Brown v. Board of Education, Topeka May 17, 1954. He argues that in todayís advanced technologically based society, that the existence of the digital divide is comparable to providing inadequate and unequal education to those from minority and underprivileged backgrounds. Morse outlines several factors, which, as in the original ruling, are comprised of both ìtangibleî and ìintangibleî elements. Morse states in the first paragraph of his 2004 article:

ìGiven how use of these technologies has permeated our society, including our nationís schools, all relevant aspects of the digital divide must be addressed if the spirit of Brown is to be realized.î

Physical facilities, equipment such as hardware and software (tangibles) are not the only circumstances that affect a childís education. Although, certainly, without the tangibles, no progress can be made toward closing the digital divide. Attitudes about how to incorporate technology into curricula and the cultural acceptance of technology in schools (intangibles) can impact childrenís ability to become computer literate as well.  

As noted in the official decision of the U.S. Supreme Court justices in the Brown case ìA sense of inferiority affects the motivation of a child to learnî (Supreme Court, 1954, para. 8, Brown v. Board of Education section).

Morse additionally argues that technology is often used in inner-city schools as a means of teaching students mastery of basic skills. It is used as a sort of drillmaster for tasks to be learned by rote. In contrast, in more affluent school districts, students are encouraged to view technology as a tool, a means of problem solving and critical thinking (Morse, 2004). In this manner, students of inner-city schools may not learn the full value of technology, and this too puts them at a disadvantage in the job market. This also leads to lesser earning opportunities and decreases the likelihood of those students pursuing technological knowledge in the future. (Morse, 2004). Morse encourages teachers to carefully consider what it is they hope to use the technology to accomplish with students, rather than to let the fact that they are having students use it at all suffice.

Digital Divide and Rural vs. Urban Access

Research indicates that people living in rural areas are less likely to have Internet access than their urban counterparts. In households where income brackets are below $35,000, those living in urban areas are at least 25% more likely to have Internet access than those in rural areas (NTIA, 2000). Households with low incomes in rural areas are the least likely to be connected to electronic resources than any other group (NTIA, 2000). Pilot programs are underway in several rural areas across the nation providing high speed Internet service over electric power lines (Austin, 2004). The program is testing whether this sort of outlet access can provide an affordable alternative to DSL, cable and satellite Internet service. The Federal Communications Commission has embraced the notion and will soon issue regulations for power companies wishing to offer the service. Many power companies remain skeptical of the efficiency and continued success of such a move, and are waiting and watching for the results of test programs (Austin, 2004).

For many rural communities, DSL access is simply not available, and they must rely on dial-up service for Internet use or they have no service at all. Although the ease of use seems like a selling point (just plug into an outlet) those who already have had experience with wireless technology may find the move a step backwards (Austin, 2004).

Government Response to the Digital Divide

The government has shown interest in analyzing the digital divide in hopes of addressing some of its causes. The US Department of Commerce and the National Telecommunications Administration have published a series of four reports, titled Falling through the Net beginning in 1995 and continuing through October of 2000 that outline the facets and evolution of the digital divide in the U.S. Their findings note the disparity in technology access between those of white, middle class origins and those of minority and lower socio-economic class background. Using statistics obtained from the US Census bureau, they examine the problem as it occurs by racial and economic factors. As discussed in the previous section, alternatives to traditional Internet connections are being sanctioned as one possible solution to closing the divide in rural areas.

Additionally, lawmakers have been engaged in debate over the potential taxation of Internet service. Presently, some states allow taxation on services such as DSL, claiming the monies will raise valuable revenue for states. Opponents of this stance claim that not instituting taxation will help close the digital divide, and encourage poorer and underserved people to use the service at affordable rates (Peterson, 2003). For the time being, it appears that the temporary ban on Internet service taxation will stand (Peterson, 2003).

Community Technology Centers (CTCs) ñOne Response to the Gap

Community Technology Centers (CTCs) come in a variety of forms, from libraries to youth and community centers, to actual computer centers. Their common link is that all strive to make information technology available to the public, regardless of socio-economic background. Their goal is increasing access to important digital tools and services, from tutorials to job seeking. Unfortunately, they may have varying levels of success in doing this. The Community Technology Centersí Network website http://www.ctcnet.org/ includes detailed plans of how to create a technology center, from the planning to the implementation, that may aid CTCs in achieving their goals. One remaining issue, however, is how to evaluate a CTCís programs. Since CTCs differ dramatically in size, goals, and available resources, there is no one method for evaluation (Servon & Nelson, 2001). Servon & Nelson conceded that CTCs must work in partnership with other organizations, such as schools and government agencies, to achieve maximum success.

Servon and Nelson are cautious proponents of CTCs. They argue that the electronic transfer of information and services has enabled companies (formerly offering well paying jobs to workers without computer skills) to move out of urban locations and into suburbs, and sometimes overseas, to keep labor costs down. The jobs in the companies that remain tend to be for people who possess technology skills. This trend removes jobs from those less skilled workers and forces them into lesser paying employment.  Servon and Nelson argue that in this manner, the IT sector is directly responsible for the restructuring of the urban labor market.

Servon and Nelson also suggest that in this time when even government information is becoming more readily accessible online, people who do not possess basic technology skills may become information poor and this hurts society as a whole (Servon & Nelson, 2001). Servon and Nelson suggest that the interactive nature of electronic information seeking allows for the potential formation of virtual communities and networks that can serve society well.  Although Servon and Nelson concede that availability of information technology alone to poor urban communities is not the answer to bridging the digital divide, they believe that in conjunction with related efforts it can aid in the process.

A Corporate Response to the Digital Divide

One example of the corporate sector becoming involved in the digital divide issue follows. Although it does not appear to come from the spirit of philanthropy, it does seem to be helping rather than hindering the goal of closing the digital gap for minorities. Gateway computers has elected to invest in the Latino market and have purchased a portion of Quepasa.Com, which also gives them exclusive rights to market their products over the web portal (Lach, 2000).  Gateway has also begun offering technical support services in Spanish (Lach, 2000). Lach notes that this sudden interest in the Latino community may be due to the fact that there had been a 68% increase in Latino computer usage at the time of the articleís writing, compared with only 43% increase in the general U.S. population.

Other market research indicated that among Latinos surveyed, price and reluctance to embrace technology was the response of those who responded that they were not using computers. Latinos who did use computers tended to be better educated than their non-using counterparts. One of the reasons named by the surveyed Latinos for embracing technology was that they didnít want their children to be left behind in the digital age (Lach, 2000). Oddly enough, the cited study shows that most Latinos using computers tended to use more English sites than Spanish sites in web surfing. Yahoo ranked highest among Latino users (Lach, 2000). The ability to tap into minority markets may be the incentive that Corporate America needs in order to address the digital divide.

Summary

Computer literacy has become as important as literacy in general. Just as reading literacy is essential in the labor force, so now too is information technology skill. There are people who continue to resist this trend, who for financial reasons or feelings of intimidation do not access computer resources. Public awareness of the value of these skills will play a critical role in lessening the digital divide in the U.S. The presentation of technology and how it is employed in the education of minority and low-income students may need to be reviewed by both teachers and school administrators to ensure that students are adequately prepared to use it to maximum benefit. Attitudes about who uses technology in America are slowly changing. The government and the corporate sector have begun to see the value of reaching all populations with information technology, and have begun to understand the consequences of not doing so. Evolving partnerships among all these sectors will hopefully begin to fill this chasm.

Robbin, Alice. (2000). We the People: One Nation, a Multicultural Society. Library Trends 49 (1), pp. 6-48.