Bridging the Digital Divide:  Will it really make a difference?

by Joan R. Wollin
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July 11, 2004

            Within the decade, we have seen an explosion of computer and Internet use that has rapidly changed the way our society communicates, learns and works.  The implications of these changes has caused great debate among technologists and social critics.  “There are those who see computers and the Internet as a positive force that will foster greater communication and better access to education, promote global under-standing, and make the world a better place to live.  Other critics suggest that computer technology will promote impoverished relationships, isolation of people within families, and distancing between families and the outside world.”[1]  

            Since the beginning of the twentieth century, with the introduction of each new technology, such as the automobile, motion pictures, radios, airplanes, the telephone, and television, similar arguments have arose.  Studies of the impact of  technological change on society have resulted in both positive and negative views.  Computers and the Internet have had as much influence on peoples’ lives as the telephone and television.[2]   It has been suggested that in developed countries the Internet could grow as popular as television today, with levels reaching 90% to 95% of the population.[3]

            One major concern that has been expressed regarding the recent worldwide impact from information technology is equality of access.  Numerous books and articles have been written about the “digital divide”, a phrase coined in the mid-1990’s by the U.S. National Telecommunications and Information Administration in a report that addressed the issue of technology equality.  However, this phrase which implies there exists a separation between groups that have access to computer technology and the Internet and groups that do not, “fails to do justice to the complex reality of various peoples’ differing access and usage of digital technology.”[4]   One author gives as an example someone visiting a library once a month to surf the net as a “have not” while someone with the same experience in a developing country as a “have.”[5]   It is apparent that the issue of a digital divide is not black and white.  To develop a more realistic picture, one needs to consider the context in which computers are being used.

            To better understand how technology affects our lives, good and bad, this paper will address the question: “Will bridging the digital divide really make a difference?”  Since computers are used in many different ways, such factors as education, job opportunity, and social development will be discussed.  But first, a brief look at the history of the Internet will be reviewed to help in understanding the origin of the digital divide concept.

History

            Originally, computers were used primarily by scientists, researchers, engineers and some big businesses.  About a decade ago, the Internet was used mostly by the military.[6]  However, in 1994 the graphically-based web browser, Mosaic, was introduced, making the web possible for the general public with just a few clicks of a mouse.  In 1995, Vice President Al Gore announced that the priority of the Clinton Administration would be the development of “the information superhighway.”  Clinton’s speech, “Call to Action for American Education” made computer access a priority in the education system,  “to wire every classroom and library in the country by the year 2000.”[7] 

            Also in 1995, a study by the National Telecommunications and Information Administration (NTIA) called “Falling through the net: A survey of the “Have Nots” in rural and urban America,” revealed that access to computers and the Internet was unequal.[8]  The Telecommunications Act of 1996 broadened telecommunications policy to include new digital media.  This was the first policy response to the NTIA report,  recognizing that the problem of access is an issue similar to telephone service.  This Act also featured the E-Rate program whose goal was to provide “schools and libraries in poor communities with discounted rates for Internet access, high-speed data connections, phone service, and wiring.”[9]  The E-Rate program was funded by taxes on both long distance and local telephone carriers.  Over the next few years, while NTIA studies continued to track computer and Internet access, the phrase “digital divide” describing disparities in access, popularized an issue that has been debated, researched, analyzed and experimented with ever since.[10]

            The E-Rate program is one of the largest federal programs for technology infrastructure, spending a total of approximately $2.25 billion in FY 2001.            Other programs that have helped communities with software, hardware, training and content development are Technologies Opportunities Program (TOP) and Community Technology Centers (CTC).[11]   Additional sources of funding have come from the private sector:  foundations, corporations and non-profits.  The Gates Foundation and Dell are examples of corporations with established foundations that have given to digital divide initiatives in schools and public libraries to improve technological access.[12]

            However, equality of home access to computers is still perceived as a major problem, and proposals to assist low-income families with the purchase of technology has been discussed.  Little has been done in this area except support on a small scale that has come from small non-profit programs in the form of loans, used equipment and out sourcing.[13]

            Currently, the Bush administration has designated the CTC and TOP programs for elimination.  Two issues have caused conflict with federal policy, “whether disparities will disappear of their own accord in light of the rapid diffusion of the Internet, and whether government intervention is appropriate, regardless of continued inequities.”[14]

Government: Making a Difference

            Government believes the uses of information technology is what makes the digital divide an appropriate issue for public policy because “computers and the Internet are, among other things, tools for participation in the economy and the political arena.”[15]   A community or nation whose people are well-educated will be more competitive and productive.  Similar to education improving the level and quality of human productivity, technological skills are also becoming increasingly important assets to the economy.[16]  In addition, the more educated and informed people are, the more they are interested and informed about political issues and, therefore,  likely will want to be involved in their community’s government by voting, volunteering, organizing, and running for office.[17]

            However, “access is undeniably important, but the real policy question is how well society will be able to take advantage of the opportunities offered by technology.”[18]

When experiments were conducted by providing computers to other countries including bare bones training and support, similar problems arose with each initiative.  It was found that too much focus was placed on providing the software and hardware and not enough attention was given to the human and social systems “that must also change for technology to make a difference.”[19]  Meaningful access to computer technology encompasses a wide range of factors that include human, social, physical and digital resources and relationships.  In addition, “content and language, literary and education, and community and institutional structures must all be taken into account if meaningful access to new technologies is to be provided.”[20]

Digital Divide and Education

            When the Clinton Administration made computer access a priority, they did it from a belief that if everyone had equal access, they would reap the benefits of the information flow from the Internet, a powerful device that will bring together science and technology and create a “revolution in democratic communication.”  By beginning with computer access in public schools, it was hoped that overall information literacy would improve, and in turn increase academic progress in all subjects.  “The Internet is expected to do no less than virtually transform society.”

            However, before applying technology as an “educational Band-Aid,” one must consider carefully the possible ramifications that can occur.  “The key issue is not unequal access to computers but rather the unequal ways that computers are used.”[21]  Research has revealed that computer use in schools can increase inequality just as much as lessen inequality.  One study of kindergarten through 12^th grade students from wealthier families used computers more often for research, experimentation and critical thinking while students from poorer families participated in exercises that were not as challenging and did not use computer technology to its fullest potential.  Therefore, these “broader inequalities in technology use and learning” need to be addressed as much as access issues.[22]

            Another study was conducted in a co-ed junior high school in metropolitan Victoria, Australia to determine if the increased use of computers in both home and school environments has had an impact on student’s reading and comprehension skills.  The majority of the group of students participating in the study had access to computers.[23]  

            The research of the junior high school students revealed that they were reading less and relying more on the Internet for research than from books.   It was observed that students were more interested in using the computers for games and surfing the net than for reading and writing.  As a result, test scores have shown that their literacy and comprehensive skills have been negatively affected.  This study “suggests that the computers might have a negative impact on young people who are still in a process of learning and developing their basic language literacy skills.”[24]

            Because children are still maturing mentally and physically, it is important that reading and writing skills are firmly established before computer technology is fully ingrained in the classroom and at home.  “The use of computers still requires adequate literacy skills to enable students and others to interpret the messages, looking for several possible meanings, fully participating in reading and writing.”[25]  Because the trend of society today has caused a shift from literacy to technology, it is imperative that a balance  be achieved in order to succeed in the teaching of both language and computer skills.

Digital Divide and Job Opportunity

            The digital divide stems from a belief that “the computer is the gateway to membership in the information society and the workforce of the future. . . ”[26]    This theory helps to explain why so many people “equate computer use with economic development and improved social conditions.”

            It has been determined that knowing how to access information technology is  important especially when the current economy is shifting from manufacturing to services and information-related industries.[27]  Technology has helped economic growth by 25 percent between 1996 and 1999.  In 2000,  information technology companies brought in $800 billion in sales, which accounted for 10 percent of the United State’s gross domestic product.[28]  It has been argued that training to update skills of the country’s workforce would help the U.S. maintain a competitive edge in the global markets.  “Not only does a better educated and trained workforce create significant productivity gains and better bottom line results for American workers, but the more a worker learns, the more a worker earns.”[29]

            However, the actual skills of job seekers and the types of well-paying information technology jobs available has been uneven.  Because low-income and disadvantaged workers do not have the up-to-date skills to compete in information technology jobs, the digital divide widens.  Therefore, businesses who cannot find enough skilled workers are seeking foreign workers who are eligible to work in the U.S.  This movement may help productivity but does not reach down to the unskilled worker.[30]

            Education and training is the answer, of course.  Experts believe that access to computers should begin in the schools.  “Those who are connected will have greater access to college, to well-paying jobs, and to information that will help them more fully participate in civic society.”[31]  Workers who have computer technology skills will have greater access to job opportunities than those who do not.[32]  Therefore, the reality of current trends in the economy dictates that bridging the digital divide will benefit not only the individual worker but also the economy as a whole, making a difference in  productivity and economic security for both.

Digital Divide and Social Development

            It has been suggested that a problem with the original digital divide concept is “its implication of a bipolar split.”[33]  In other words, it is not an information division between haves and have knots, but more of “graduation based on different degrees of access to information technology.”[34]  This idea of a divide neglects the social resources that diverse groups have to offer, thus creating an inaccurate picture of an actual divide.[35]

            Mark Warschauer, in his book Technology and Social Inclusion, mentions that social inclusion should be considered when portraying the issue of digital divide.  He states “the goal of using information and communication technology (ICT) with marginalized groups is not to overcome a digital divide but rather to further a process of social inclusion.”[36]  Less focus should be placed on technology and more on the transformation of ICT into a society that will know how to access and have a purpose for accessing it. 

            “The existing social structure also plays a role; innovations in highly stratified societies will usually reinforce existing socioeconomic disparities.”[37]  Some believe that the initial impact of computer technology will “exacerbate existing social divisions.”[38]  The class structure formed by income, race and jobs will only be widened further by the digital divide.[39]   Although some recent reports claim access has improved among socioeconomic groups because of increased availability in the schools and libraries, and overall lowered costs of equipment, there still exists a divide that will hinder social or economic development among those certain groups.

Conclusion

            If the policymakers’ wish came true and the digital divide actually closed, would our society as a whole improve drastically?  It seems that the problems that existed before the onslaught of information technology would most likely still exist.  “However, technologies never exist in isolation.  Social, political, and economic environment condition the scope of imagination that assigns technology certain roles in our lives, as well as its use, acceptance, integration, and utility.”[40] 

            To conclude, it has been proven that computer technology has many benefits to society.  But it is how people use the technology that will make a difference to their individual lives as well as to the society as a whole.  It is important to remember, “the digital divide has been a symbolic banner for politicians and corporate largesse insofar as it substituted for more direct action against inequalities of income, education, and race.”[41]

Since it is one of many tools that can be used help solve problems in our communities, it should not be solely relied upon as the ultimate medication.  An appropriate balance needs to be considered when thinking about bridging the digital divide.  “Technology then becomes a means, and often a powerful one, rather than an end in itself.”[42]

 
 Bibliography

1) Hoffman, Donna L. and Novak, Thomas P.  “The Growing Digital Divide:  Implications for an Open Research Agenda.” Understanding the Digital Economy:  Data, Tools and Research, Owen Graduate School Management, Vanderbuilt University (1999). www.edchange.org/multicultural

 2) Hughes, Robert Jr. and Hans, Jason D. “Computers, the Internet, and Families.” Journal of Family Issues. 22.6 (September 2001).

3) Mossberger, Karen. Virtual Inequality:  Beyond the Digital Divide.  D.C.: Georgetown University Press, 2003.

 
4) Norris, Pippa. Digital Divide: Civic Engagement, Information Poverty, and the Internet Worldwide.  Cambridge: Cambridge University Press, 2001.

 
5) Radi, Odette.  “The Impact of Computer Use on Literacy in Reading Comprehension and Vocabulary Skills.”  Seventh World Conference on Computers in Education in Copenhagen, July –Aug 2001, The University of Melbourne, Australia: Australian Computer Society, Inc. (2002).

 
6) Servon, Lisa J. Bridging the Digital Divide: Technology, Community, and Public Policy. Malden: Blackwell Publishing, 2002.

7) Strover, Sharon.  “Remapping the Digital Divide.”  The Information Society. 19: (2003) 275-277.

8) Warschauer, Mark. “Demystifying the Digital Divide.” Scientific American. 289.2 (August 2003).

9) Warschauer, Mark. Technology and Social Inclusion: Rethinking the Digital Divide. Cambridge: The MIT Press, 2003.