At the end of the twentieth century, local and
international forces have merged to escalate the sexual exploitation of women and girls.
Policies, practices and crises are combining to increase both the supply of women and
girls vulnerable to exploitation and the demand by men for women and girls to be used for
their profit and sexual gratification. Sexual exploitation takes many forms, such as
sexual harassment, incest, rape, child marriages, temporary marriages, female genital
mutilation, pornography, bride trafficking, battering, sexual torture and prostitution.
All of these practices violate women’s dignity and autonomy.
Globally, one form of sexual exploitation, prostitution, is becoming more normalized
and industrialized, with some powerful agents and institutions advocating for its
widespread legitimization and legalization. As prostitution has increased, the demand for
women and girls has resulted in widespread recruitment and trafficking to fill the
brothels, bars and street corners.
In July 1997, a group of survivors, activists and service providers came together from
Asia, Africa, Europe, South America, the Caribbean, North America and the Middle East to
report on the situation for women and girls in their region and discuss efforts to combat
sexual exploitation and provide services to victims. Participants in "Working With
Women and Girls in Prostitution: Programs and Policies" focused on how sexual
exploitation affects the physical health and mental well being of women and girls, and
what obstacles prevent women and girls from escaping prostitution. Making the Harm
Visible has its roots in that international meeting in New York City organized by the
Coalition Against Trafficking in Women.
Making the Harm Visible is a collection of writings from women who are working
to make the harm of sexual violence and exploitation visible. They speak out about their
experiences, provide services to survivors, and create policies that force governments and
communities to protect the rights of girls and women, not profit from their exploitation.
Women from every world region report that the sexual exploitation of women and girls is
increasing. All over the world, brothels and prostitution rings exist underground on a
small scale, and on an increasingly larger scale, entire sections of cities are informally
zoned into brothels, bars and clubs that house, and often enslave, women for the purposes
of prostitution. The magnitude and violence of these practices of sexual exploitation
constitutes an international human rights crisis of contemporary slavery. In
"Prostitution: A Form of Modern Slavery," Dorchen Leidholdt, the Co-executive
Director of the Coalition Against Trafficking in Women, examines the definitions of
slavery and shows how prostitution, and related forms of sexual exploitation, fit into
defined forms of slavery.
In some parts of the world, such as the Philippines, prostitution is illegal, but well
entrenched from providing "recreational services" to military personnel. In
"Blazing Trails, Confronting Challenges: The Sexual Exploitation of Women and Girls
in the Philippines," Aida F. Santos describes the harmful conditions for women and
girls in prostitution in the Philippines, with problems related to health, violence, the
legal system, and services. In other regions, such as northern Norway, organized
prostitution is a more recent problem, stemming from the economic crisis in Russia. In
"Russian Women in Norway," Asta Beate Håland describes how an entire community
is being transformed by the trafficking of women for prostitution from Russia to
campgrounds and villages across the border in Norway.
Political changes combined with economic crises have devastated entire world regions,
increasing the supply of vulnerable women willing to risk their lives to earn money for
themselves and their families. Aurora Javate de Dios, President of the Coalition Against
Trafficking in Women, discusses the impact of the Southeast Asian economic crisis on
women’s lives in "Confronting Trafficking, Prostitution and Sexual Exploitation:
The Struggle for Survival and Dignity." Economic globalization controlled by a
handful of multi-national corporations located in a few industrialized countries continues
to shift wealth from poorer to richer countries. In her paper "Globalization, Human
Rights and Sexual Exploitation," Aida F. Santos shows us the connection between
global economics and the commodification and sexual exploitation of women and girls,
especially in the Philippines. Structural adjustment programs implemented by international
financial institutions impose loan repayment plans on poor countries, which sacrifice
social and educational programs in order to service their debt to rich nations and banks.
Fatoumata Sire Diakite points to structural adjustment programs as one of the factors
contributing to poverty and sexual exploitation in her paper "Prostitution in
Mali." Zoraida Ramirez Rodriguez writes in "Report on Latin America" that
the foreign debt and policies of the International Monetary Fund (IMF) are primary factors
in creating poverty for women and children. These forces leave women with few options,
increasing the supply of women vulnerable to recruitment into bride trafficking and the
prostitution industry.
Social problems such as sexual and physical abuse within families force girls and women
to leave in search of safety and a better life, but often they find more exploitation and
violence. Physical and sexual abuse of girls and women in their families and by intimate
partners destroys girls’ and women’s sense of self and resiliency, making them
easy targets for pimps and traffickers who prey on those who have few options left to
them. These factors are evident in many of the papers from all world regions in this
volume, such as Jill Leighton and Katherine DePasquale’s, "A Commitment to
Living" and Martha Daguno’s, "Support Groups for Survivors of the
Prostitution Industry in Manila."
Government policies and practices also fuel the demand for prostitution, as they
legalize prostitution or refuse to enforce laws against pimps, traffickers and male
buyers. In Making the Harm Visible, we see how countries with governmental
structures and ideological foundations as different as the Netherlands and Iran, both
promote and legalize sexual violence and exploitation of girls and women. In
"Legalizing Pimping, Dutch Style," Marie-Victoire Louis exposes the liberal laws
and policies that legalize prostitution and tolerate brothels in the Netherlands. On the
other extreme, religious fundamentalists in Iran have legalized the sexual exploitation of
girls and women in child and temporary marriages and the sexual torture of women in
prison. Sarvnaz Chitsaz and Soona Samsami document this harm and violation of human rights
in "Iranian Women and Girls: Victims of Exploitation and Violence."
Global media and communication tools, such as the Internet, make access to pornography,
catalogs of mail order brides, advertisements for prostitution tours, and information on
where and how to buy women and girls in prostitution widely available. This open
advertisement normalizes and increases the demand by men for women and girls to use in
these different forms of exploitation. Donna M. Hughes describes her findings on how the
Internet is being used to promote the sexual exploitation of women and children in
"The Internet and the Global Prostitution Industry." In this milieu, women and
girls become commodities—bought and sold locally and trafficked from one part of the
world to another.
How do we make the harm of sexual exploitation visible? In a world where sexual
exploitation is increasingly normalized and industrialized what is needed to make people
see the harm and act to stop it? The women in Making the Harm Visible recommend
four ways to make the harm of sexual exploitation visible: listen to the experiences of
survivors, expose the ideological constructions that hide the harm, expose the agents that
profit from the sexual exploitation of women and children, and document harm and conduct
research that reveals the harm and offers findings that can be used for policy
initiatives.
First, listen to the experiences of survivors. The contributors to this volume speak
eloquently, passionately and urgently for the voices of survivors to be heard and used as
the basis for a global movement against sexual exploitation. The power of survivors’
testimony and their visible participation in political struggle is emphasized. The
survivor testimonies of Jill Leighton, Alexia, Christine Grussendorf and Jenny speak
clearly about the violence perpetrated against women and children in prostitution. In her
poem, "They Are Showing Your Face," Victoria Marinelli shows us the harm of
media sensationalization, which further exploits the victims of sexual abuse and
exploitation. The sexual abuse, exploitation and torture of women political prisoners is
recounted by Ladan Pardeshenas in "Women’s Activism for Freedom in Iran"
and by Aida F. Santos in the Philippines in "Memories." Malka Marcovich, in
"The Violence of Silence: Survivor Testimony in Political Struggle," calls upon
her experience in interviewing the survivors of Nazi Germany’s "final
solution" to argue the importance of survivor testimony in a movement against
violence. Angel Cassidy strongly and succinctly states the need to speak out about the
violence and exploitation in "Never Be Quiet." And in "Not Sex Work,"
Victoria Marinelli gives us her manifesto against redefining sexual exploitation as
"sex work."
Second, expose the ideological constructions that hide and excuse the violence,
exploitation and harm. We are bombarded with misinformation and ideological constructions
of prostitution and other forms of sexual exploitation that make the harm invisible,
benefit the sex industry and provide cover for the men who buy and exploit women and
girls. We need to expose the explicit and implicit rationales used to justify the sexual
exploitation of women and girls. Contributors to Making the Harm Visible challenge
the excuses men use for exploiting women and children, and call for everyone to do the
same. The oldest excuse is the biological determinist one that men have to have sex. If
they don’t have a wife or available partner, then buying a woman or using a child is
the only alternative. Men often escape accountability for the harm they inflict by this
simple, but false, assumption. The same underlying thinking applies to men in the
military, who supposedly need to buy women as part of "rest and relaxation." In
the papers from the Philippines and Cambodia, the presence of military personnel is sited
as resulting in increased sexual exploitation of indigenous women. In "Corregidor
Tales," Aida F. Santos describes the underground remnants of cells where
"comfort women" were kept in sexual slavery for Japanese military personnel
during World War II.
Historically, patriarchal religious ideologies have justified the sexual abuse and
exploitation of women and girls in many forms, including child marriages, temporary
marriages, and women’s lack of sexual autonomy. In the paper on Iran, several forms
of sexual exploitation of women and girls have been legally instated under fundamentalist
rule. In "Trafficking and Prostitution in Bangladesh: Contradictions in Law and
Practice," Sigma Huda describes the no-win situation that girls and women face after
being trafficked or prostituted. In countries to which Bangladeshi girls are trafficked,
such as Pakistan, the victims face long prison sentences for illegal entry into the
country, or under harsh Islamic law, can be stoned to death for fornication.
Liberal ideologies about sexuality also overlook the harm of exploitation by
uncritically viewing all sexual activity, including prostitution, as forms of sexual
expression that should be permitted and protected as individual choices and rights. This
sexual liberal philosophy merges with the neoliberal economic policies and practices to
rename prostitution as "sex work." This reconfiguration of sexual exploitation
is condemned by numerous contributors to Making the Harm Visible.
The contributors to this volume also ask us to critically examine explanations of
prostitution that search for the cause of "self-destructive behaviors" in girls
or women’s personal deficits and defects. Although women in prostitution often suffer
from drug and alcohol addiction, several of the authors urge us to see this as a symptom
of the harm of prostitution, not as the root cause. Although, several authors discuss
poverty and economic crisis as factors in compelling women and girls into prostitution,
they remind us that this is what is fueling the supply, but equally important is
men’s demand for women and girls they can buy.
Third, expose the agents that advocate for and profit from the normalization and
legalization of sexual exploitation, whether they be individual men who buy women in
prostitution, or governments and United Nations bodies that advocate for legalization of
prostitution or the recognition of the prostitution industry as a legitimate economic
sector. The Dutch government has legalized prostitution, legalized brothels and is putting
into place a system of taxation to profit from the prostitution industry. The Netherlands
is the leading advocate for the legalization of prostitution and redefinition of
trafficking of women to include only those women who can prove they were coerced or
deceived into prostitution. In "Human Rights: A European Challenge?" Malka
Marcovich describes efforts to set new standards that will deprive women of their human
rights in Europe as the European Union is being constructed. Mary Sullivan, in
"Marketing Women in Australia" describes how Australia is incorporating
legalized prostitution into its economic and tourism plan. In "Legalizing
Prostitution: Legitimating Abuse," Donna M. Hughes argues against the legalization of
prostitution in Eastern and Central Europe as a way to combat the trafficking of women
from that region.
Fourth, document the harm and conduct research on sexual exploitation. The harm of
sexual exploitation often remains invisible until someone focuses their attention on it
and documents their findings. Often issues need to be theoretically reframed and different
questions posed. Several women, Jill Leighton, Jenny, and Norma Hotaling, point out that
even when there are visible signs of trauma in women’s and girls’ lives, no one
asks the simple question: "What has happened to you in your life?" The
contributors use their findings to describe and analyze the forces that compel women and
girls into conditions of exploitation and, often, slavery. In "Strip Clubs According
to Strippers," Kelly Holsopple systematically asks women about the verbal, physical
and sexual violence that they were subjected to while working as strippers. Norma Hotaling
reports on research she and others have done on violence against women in prostitution in
"Women in Prostitution in the United States." In "The Health Effects of
Prostitution," Janice G. Raymond surveys previous research and reports on the
multiple physical and mental health problems suffered by women in prostitution, many of
which lead to shortened lives or death. The contributors to Making the Harm Visible
urge us to ask different research questions about the demand from men to sexually exploit
women and girls and the rationales that are used to justify this violence. The Research
Project on Men and Prostitution in Japan provides us with a strong quantitative base and
framework on which to examine men’s use of women in prostitution. In "Why Men
Buy Women in Prostitution," the findings from a survey of 2000 men on their use and
attitudes towards prostitution are reported.
One of the most glaring problems in combating sexual exploitation is the lack of
assistance for its victims. The need for services is poignantly evident in Minerva
Kalenandi’s testimony, "You Need Some Place to Escape To," in which she
describes being turned away from a domestic violence shelter even though she had sustained
serious injuries from a pimp. Compared to services for other victims of violence, there a
few services for prostituted women, resulting in women receiving little or inappropriate
treatment. Since prostituted women are viewed with prejudice, they are often treated
disrespectfully in treatment programs. Also, since few mainstream service providers
recognize the harm in prostitution, the trauma the women have suffered is not addressed.
Innovative programs for women escaping sexual exploitation that address the harm caused
to victims, though few in number, have been created in many world regions. Numerous
contributors to this volume report on the services they are providing to victims of sexual
exploitation. They describe innovative work and share ideas on programs and projects to
assist women and girls. The founders of these programs bring a feminist analysis to the
multiple problems faced by women and girls in situations of sexual exploitation. The women
and girls are treated with respect and care to restore their dignity.
In "She Let Me Talk and She Listened," Jill Leighton describes how the simple
act of listening can save a life. The workers and volunteers in these agencies reach out
to women and girls on the street and in jails. In "Phoenix Rising," Kathleen
Mitchell relates how the plan for Dignity House was conceived while she herself was in
jail after being arrested for prostitution. Many of the service providers in this volume
were themselves prostituted women who know first hand the lack of services for women
trying to escape prostitution. In Phnom Phen, Cambodia, girls who have escaped brutality
and slavery in brothels can find services at the Cambodian Women’s Crisis Center. A
representative from this newly found center writes about "The Sale of Women and Girls
to Brothels in Cambodia."
The contributors describe model programs that provide services to women and girl
victims of sexual exploitation and create a space for survivors to come to together to
heal and find their voices to speak out and organize. In "Support Group for Survivors
of the Prostitution Industry in Manila," Martha Daguno describes the first
survivor’s group to be set-up in the Philippines. Other agencies and organizations,
such as BUKAL (meaning spring), and Women’s Education, Development, Productivity and
Research Organization (WEDPRO) are pioneers in developing services for sexually exploited
women in the Philippines. Their efforts are chronicled by Aida F. Santos in "Blazing
Trails, Confronting Challenges."
The involvement and leadership by survivors is emphasized in many programs. Working on
an empowerment model these organizations work through peer educators. In "Casa de
Passagem in Brazil," Ana Vasconcelos describes the empowerment and peer education
model she uses with homeless street girls in Brazil. Norma Hotaling, in "First
Offender Prostitution Program in San Francisco," describes their survivor run peer
support program.
Women and girls trying to escape prostitution face fearsome odds. In "Breaking
Free," Vednita Carter describes many of the obstacles the women face and their
Afrocentric approach to providing services in Minnesota, USA. Pimps and perpetrators prey
on the most vulnerable women and girls. Girls with disabilities are often targeted for
exploitation because of their vulnerability. Claudia Vigil describes the work of the
Homahi Foundation and its programs for mothers with special needs in "Prostitution
and Mothers with Special Needs in Argentina." Services for victims of sexual
exploitation receive little attention or support in most communities. Marlene Sandoval
started the Psycho-Social Rehabilitation Center in Chile in one room in a house with no
running water. She reports on the work of the center in this volume.
Some services to women escaping prostitution are combined with community education and
programs that confront men’s harm to women. SAGE (Standing Against Global
Exploitation) in San Francisco is the 1998 winner of the Harvard University Kennedy School
of Government’s Award for Innovations in Government for their cooperative work with
the District Attorney’s office to create a program commonly referred to as "the
John’s School." Norma Hotaling describes their original and successful work to
reeducate men about the harm they cause in "The First Offender Prostitution Program
in San Francisco."
Another important aspect to ending the sexual exploitation of women and girls is
prevention. Zoraida Ramirez Rodriguez describes her education and prevention programs for
schools and community organizations in "Preventative Action Against Prostitution in
Venezuela."
Although the women in this volume come from all regions of the world, they share common
goals and attitudes. They are survivors and visionaries who are not afraid to confront
overwhelming problems and remain steadfast in their work. Most of them know that their
goal of ending the sexual exploitation of women and girls is nothing less than
revolutionary. In "Surviving Sexual Slavery: Women in Search of Freedom," Chris
Grussendorf writes graphically, with a searing analysis, about what is done to women in
situations of torturous sexual abuse and exploitation in prostitution rings. She also
forcefully proclaims the sustenance and aspiration of the women in resistance to sexual
exploitation, "We stay alive because we are women in search of our lives; we are
women in search of freedom. I stayed alive because my belief in something better than what
they offered was greater than their hatred and destruction. I stayed alive because I
wanted to be free, more than anything, I wanted to be free. I wanted to live in a world of
respect."
Organization and activism by women is essential to create change and end violence
against women and sexual exploitation. In "Women United Can Make a Difference: The
Situation in Spain and the European Union," Asuncion Miura describes how women
working together changed public attitudes about violence against women and created
services to assist victims of battering. Sarvnaz Chitsaz and Soona Samsami relate the
importance of women’s leadership in political and social activism to end of
women’s oppression and usher in true equality for women and girls in the world. Women
must undertake the work of organization and advocacy for women because it is not in the
interests of men to do this work, although there are a few men willing to stand against
the oppression of women. These writers understand that when the deepest forms of
exploitation, violence and oppression are named, challenged and ended and all the victims
healed, there will be a true social, economic and political revolution for women.