The red-spotted newt has one of the most complicated life histories of any pond-breeding amphibian in Rhode Island because it has four, not three, life stages (egg, aquatic larva, terrestrial eft, and aquatic adult). Newts eggs are laid in the spring. In the fall, larvae undergo metamorphosis and transform into a juvenile terrestrial form referred to as an 'eft '. The terrestrial eft stage lasts for 2-7 years, then newts undergo a second metamorphoses -from eft to adult- before returning to ponds to breed. Life history strategies of this species are highly variable. In some areas, the eft stage is reproductively active, while in other areas the eft stage is absent and neotenic newts never leave breeding ponds.

Aquatic larvae and adults are typically found in ponds with relatively long hydroperiods (Paton and Egan 2001).

Efts
The completely terrestrial efts are habitat generalists. They are usually found in deciduous and coniferous woodlands, but also use pastures and meadows (Klemens 1993). Healy (1974a, 1975) tracked postlarval efts from breeding ponds to upland habitats, and found they require approximately 1 year to migrate to permanent forest residences. While in the forested habitat, efts live under leaf litter and other debris during dry periods and are active during wet periods when temperatures exceed 12° C (Petranka 1998a). They move about the forest floor in search of food and are frequently observed in groups where food sources are most abundant, for example, around a decaying log or mushroom (Petranka 1998a). During the cold months of winter, they hibernate on land, burrowing under logs and other debris (Degraaf and Yamasaki 2001).

Gibbs (1998a) found that in Connecticut newts avoided edges, thus their movements were affected by forest borders and streambeds. However in Maine, DeMaynadier and Hunter (1998) found newts were less sensitive than other species of amphibians to forest edges and suggested they are less vulnerable to current timber management practices.

Adults
Adult newts remain aquatic all year, unless the pond in which they live dries up (Petranka 1998a). When ponds do dry up, newts may remain in the basin of the pond, in the upland close to the pond, or move to a neighboring pond (Ptingsten and Downs 1989). By the same token, if the pond is shallow and freezes solid in the winter, newts leave the pond for the upland or a deeper pond (Gill 1978a). Morin (1983) found that in South Carolina newts, avoided desiccation by burrowing under leaf litter and other debris. Newts return to their home pond once the pond refills or unfreezes (Ptingsten and Downs 1989). During fieldwork at Trustom Pond, NWR in Rhode Island (Paton et al. 2000), we had aquatic adults entering ponds in the spring and emigrating from ponds in the fall. These individuals were olive-green, but the tail fin was not as high as some aquatic adults; they presumably wintered in adjacent upland areas. Gill (1978a; 1978b) reported similar behavior in his pond in Virginia; he found that adults migrated to the breeding pond in early spring (March-April) and emigrated during the fall (August-September).

Aquatic adults are active throughout the winter. They have been seen swimming under the ice in ponds and streams and have been observed during the winter in groups of 20-40 (Morgan and Grierson 1932). As mentioned above, in some areas larval never undergo metamorphosis to an eft stage. Rather they are neotenic and spend their entire life in ponds (Lazell 1976). To our knowledge, no neotenic populations exist in Rhode Island.

In Rhode Island, adults start moving back to temporary ponds during the first week of March, with most adults at ponds by the end of March, although some immigrate to ponds as late as mid-April (Paton and Crouch In press). According to Ptingsten and Downs (1989), newts in transition from eft to adult typically migrate back to breeding ponds during August and September (a few return in the spring).

Young red-spotted newts (efts) are among the last metamorphs to emerge from ponds in Rhode Island, with the first leaving in mid-September and some leaving as late as mid- to late November.

In Rhode Island newts breed during late spring. In contrast, adults in many northern populations court in both the spring and fall-though females oviposit only in the spring (Gage 1891; Bishop 1941); whereas, in many southern population, adults breed from late autumn through early spring (Petranka 1998a). Courtship commences with males searching the pond looking for sexually active females. If a female is encountered and responds when the male first approaches, he performs a brief 'hula' dance or a lateral display involving body and tail undulations (Petranka 1998a). The interested female then nudges the males- providing the signal for the intent male to deposit one or more spermatophores. The female picks up the spermatophore in her expanded vent where it remains until she deposits her eggs (Arnold 1977; Humphries 1955; Verrell 1982a, 1990a).

If this initial courtship strategy fails, as it does more than 50 % of the time in laboratory experiments, the male employs a more aggressive approach (Petranka 1998a). The male will use his strong back legs to engage the female in amplexus where they can remain for several hours. During this time the male uses several tactics to entice the female including waving his tail back and forth attempting to waft his scent towards the female's nostrils (Petranka 1998a). After some time, the male releases his hold and deposits one or more spermatophores which hopefully the female will collect (Petranka 1998a). Gill (1978b) reported that in some regions females can breed as many as 20-30 times.

Hurlbert (1970b) found that efts returning to the ponds as adults for the first time breed later than older adults.

Efts
Efts consume diet of worms, grubs and small insects. In wet years efts forage more and thus grow faster (Ptingsten and Downs 1989).

According to Petranka (1998a) newts were one of the few species whose population may have increased as a result of European colonization. Newts thrive in heavily vegetated farm ponds, which apparently provides cover from predatory fish. Farm ponds increased dramatically with increased colonization; therefore, presumably newt populations increased as well. However, as southern New England has reforested with the abandonment of extensive agricultural fields, newt habitat has seemingly declined.

In Maine, where large areas of forest are clear-cutted, newts appear to be less sensitive than other amphibian species to forest fragmentation (DeMaynadier and Hunter 1998). However, our ongoing research suggests that they may be extirpated from urban areas in the state (Paton and Egan 2001). Presumably, habitat fragmentation and roads have a negative impact on these species, as the eft stage is so critical to maintaining metapopulations (Gill 1978). These anthropogenic habitat changes may provide significant dispersal barriers that prevent dispersal among breeding ponds and to eventual extirpation from isolated breeding ponds. Klemens (1993) felt that newt populations in eastern Connecticut were threatened by increased suburbanization of the region.

In another study, Robinson (1993) found newts to be less stressed by acid rain than other amphibians, apparently because they can regulate their sodium balance.