Syllabi

Outlines


  Homepage

 
PHL 230
Instructor: Dr. Bob Zunjic
  

PLATO

The Republic

Books 2, 3 & 10

An Outline

The Republic is the most famous and the most ambitious of all Plato's dialogues. In an effort to find answers to the ongoing crisis of the Greek city states Plato devised a very radical reform of the existing political system. As a result the dialogue deals with an impressive array of issues ranging from ethics, politics and education all the way through to art and feminism. Both the scope and the depth of insights make this work one of the greatest books in human history. If the often cited overstatement by A.N. Whitehead, the whole of Western philosophy being just a series of footnotes to Plato, has any backing in his works it certainly refers to the Republic.

The overall topic of the discussion among the interlocutors is the nature of justice conceived as the most comprehensive virtue and cornerstone of a good State. Along the way, however, Plato tackles virtually all areas of philosophy and practical life: from epistemology and ontology to psychology and religion. With the exception of the first book (which is probably an early work), the remaining nine books should be placed in Plato's mature period of intellectual activity (by all likelihood they were written between 370. and 360. BC). This outline covers only those passages of the second, third and tenth book that pertain to Plato's understanding of art.

GENERAL

Title: The word Republic (derived from the Latin res publica) denotes literally 'public matters'. It is the rendering of the Greek politeia which means the constitution of a state; thus the title of the whole dialogue should be understood as signifying the State or state in general rather than any specific type of government (republican as opposed to monarchy). But Plato uses the term also in the sense of a blueprint for an ideal state that should overcome the shortcomings of the existing Greek poleis.

Characters:

Socrates - Plato's teacher.
Glaucon - Plato's older sibling.
Adeimantus - Another Plato's older sibling.
Note: The dialogue does not bring the above characters directly to the stage. Instead Socrates recounts a conversation with Glaucon, Adeimantus and a few others that took place a day before; the parts of the dialogue in which Socrates converses with other personages have been omitted in this selection.

   
Relevance: The Republic is about human society, its origin, its organization and the conditions of its optimal sustenance. Within this overall theme Plato discusses a variety of topics, including art and its relationship with other areas of human life. The following are some of these relations that are extensively considered or at least broached upon:

Art - Education
Art - Religion
Art - Morality
Art - Society

In addition to the elucidation of the position of art amidst different spheres of social life Plato explains both the function and the nature of artistic production. In doing this he contrasts art with philosophy and gives the palm to the latter. Although he subjects art to a series of extrinsic standards of evaluation (moral, religious, political, and social) his discussion of artistic creativity belongs to the philosophy of art at least in the sense that he raises not only the question of the function but also the one about the nature of art.

ON EDUCATION
Nurtured Nature: Plato does not regard the old dilemma between nature and nurture as disjunctive. For him, both sources of shaping our individuality are important. If we want the good natural potentials of our youth be realized and perfected to their utmost limits we need to provide a proper social environment. This means that the State has to institute a good social and educational system that is able to foster the development of the young men.
Division of Labor Division of labor is the prerequisite for the satisfaction of diversified needs (and good life). In its turn it necessitates a class division. The internal division of the State becomes a problem if the classes do not perform properly their assigned (natural) role. The principle of proper functioning is what Plato calls justice - it requires that everyone does their job. The just constitution of the State corresponds to the internal structure of the individual soul (three classes of the State match three parts of the soul that ideally should collaborate).
Goal: To rear the future guardians of the state (leaders). Why the state needs the guardians? The State needs protection and care as any human individual.
Note: For Plato, the State is both a child and the mother of the citizens. This duality explains why the education of the future elite is tantamount to the right care for the State and why this question stands in the focus of Plato's political philosophy. Plato is not an isolated voice in linking the fate of the State with the quality of its leadership. We also believe that good leadership makes the State stable and potentially prosperous.
Method: A p roper education is critical for the realization of justice because it enables the prospective rulers and guardians to acquire the necessary qualities and skills to maintain the just order in the State. Therefore the educators need to figure out how to raise young men capable to assume their future protective (guardianship) duties.
Note: The question ("smaller enquiry") how to rear future guardians should shed light on the "greater enquiry" ("how justice arises in a State?") was raised in the previous book by Socrates and Trasimachus. It is now being resumed by Plato's brothers (they play devil's advocates for the defeated Trasimachus).

Curriculum

The underlying idea of Athenian education was that it must be comprehensive enough to satisfy the main intellectual, emotional and physical needs of children. Therefore the elementary education comprised not only reading, writing, basics of mathematics, and reciting, but lyre playing and athletic exercises as well. In general, the educational curriculum included two main strains of training each providing tendance for one side of human nature (the body and the soul). The two chief parts of educational curriculum are called Music and Gymnastic respectively:


Curriculum
(A) Music
Man
Body/Mind
(B) Gymnastic

 


Objective:
 Character Building

 

Note: The idea of a double-track education was not Plato's novelty; it was deeply rooted in the traditional idea of education that well precedes Plato and his time. Plato basically accepted the ideal of a twofold education but thought it should be reorganized and taken away from the private day care schools. In other words he did not discard the traditional concept altogether - he only wanted to correct the shortcomings of the inherited model and to make the State responsible for its implementation.
Duality
Plato surmises that a proper educational process for the guardians must address both sides of their nature given the fact that the guardians are supposed to be the watchdogs for the coordination of different parts of the state body that correspond to the different part of the soul.
(1) Physical education targets the appetitive part of human nature (drives, urges, instincts, desires) that need to be tamed and disciplined in order to be able to bring about strength and swiftness along with moderation.
(2) Musical education is concerned with the cultivation of the spirited part (thymos) of the soul. It strives to attain proper receptivity for different aesthetic sentiments so that the individual remains unaffected by negative emotions that may arise both from real life and from the arts.
  Note: The above educational combination is seemingly only dual but Plato quickly relates it to his tripartite division of the soul that leads to the three main human principles which, if properly trained, could turn to practical virtues (see the full elaboration in book 4). The chart below illustrates Plato's tripartite structure in both the individual soul and the whole of society by transfering moral qualities to respective social classes. The rational part of the soul should be given the leading role since its virtue - wisdom - secures the proper relation among all other component.
   
Tripartite Division
Realm Organ Virtue Class
Rational Part Reason Wisdom Rulers, Counselors
Spirited Part Will, Passion Courage Soldiers,
Auxiliaries
Irrational Part Appetites, Desires Temperance Workers, Traders
  While wisdom represents the main virtue of the rational part of the soul (needed to distinguish friends from enemies), courage is its counterpart in the spirited part (necessary to enable soldiers to stand the ground). The presence of temperance indicates a balanced union of the appetitive and the rational part under the influence of spirit that sides with reason.
The prevalence of any of these capacities determines the function and the social position of the respective individuals in the State:
Reason - the guardians from whose ranks future rulers will be recruited,
Will - the guardians that will remain soldiers (auxiliaries), and
Strength - the workers along with traders at the bottom of social hierarchy.
  Note: Even though Plato espouses a tripartite model of education (physical, moral and intellectual) he provisionally accepts the traditional duality of gymnastic and music. Hence he discusses here just the physical and ethical sides of education. Only in book 7 he will address the cognitive and intellectual aspects of the whole process.
   
 
ON ART
Book II FORMS OF THEOLOGY
376e-383c
Topic: The Nature of Gods and Heroes.
True and False Notions - Erroneous and Correct Representations.
   
Expectation: In book 2 Plato raises the question what are the qualities the guardians need to embody? The answer is straightforward: guardians are supposed to unite in themselves "philosophy" (= 'love of wisdom') and "spirit" as well as "swiftness and strength".
It is obvious that these features combine mental, volitional and physical qualities that are indispensable for every good guardian (soldier or ruler alike).
Criterion: Given the above aim Plato's concern is now to find out how education, consisting of music and gymnastic, should be arranged in order to produce and strengthen good characters of the guardians? He does not have much to say about gymnastic despite his personal experience with wrestling. Obviously he did not think that it poses any problem nor requires revision within the new system. It is clear that working out is good for the body. Therefore Platon was primarily concerned with the impact of music which he wanted to revisit critically. As instituting proper diet and exercise is beneficial for our physical condition so a scrutiny of the effects produced by musical experiences should be helpful in improving the mental and moral state of the youth.
Receptivity At an early age children are most receptive and their nature is most maleable. They act like sponges and this opens the question of the resources and influences we'll make available to them.
Note: Hoelderlin and Heidegger will later stress this moment in terms of both ontogenetic and phylogenetic development (for Heidegger the Greek beginnings decisively determine the whole course of Western civilization).
Reasoning

The beginning is the most decisive moment in the process of child development and character building.
(1) Determines the outcome. (2) Shapes the character.
Children need both physicl and mental education.
At an early age children are not ready for excessive physical efforts required by gymnastic practices.
Therefore education will start with that part of music that can arouse and maintain their attention.
Direct Impact Of the two main components music was by all means a much more important part of education as the soul directly gets impacted by it. (Plato does not deny that gymnastic affects our mental health as well but he thought that its influence was not direct.)
Music In Ancient Greece music could have been understood in two ways:
(a) As music proper - denoting the tonal art (see section 3 in the outline of book III), or
(b) As a collective noun for some arts and sciences, denoting any art or science under the patronage of the Muses (there were nine in number).
In this latter usage the word Mousike in Greek included the following components:
Kind Objective
Poetry in the sense of literature (from story telling to poems and plays), To apprehend the beauty of the good.
Theoretical sciences (arithmetic, geometry, philosophy). To apprehend the beauty of reason.
Music in the sense of singing and playing. To apprehend the beauty of harmony.
Plastic and visual arts. To apprehend the beauty of form.

Note: As a remnant of this broad usage we still apply the word music to different combinations of sound and other components (words, images, movements, etc.)
  Plato uses the term music predominantly in the broad meaning. For him, each kind of "Music" has its specific function in the State.
Poetry Poetry, which was intimately bound up with both instrumental and vocal music, was by far the most important species of art. It had a formative role for the Greeks. This must be born in mind before we ask the questions like "Why pay so much attention to poetry in interpreting Plato?", "Who reads poetry nowadays?"
The best way to answer these questions is to remember that in Ancient Greece:
(1) Poetry was the source of background beliefs.
(2) It was the main form of popular culture (like TV today).
(3) Was recited and sung daily (both in the morning and in the evening).
(4) Was the essential part of educational curriculum.
Literature Poetry should not be equated with the poetry in our sense. Modern counterpart for the Greek concept of poetry is "literature".
Literature could be of two kinds: fictional and non-fictional (history, science, etc.). Plato attaches to both their respective cognitive attributes.
Nonfiction Fiction
True False
   
  Education starts very early and it starts with music, that is to say with that part of music that we call literature or more precisely with fiction (fictitious narratives = story telling).
Narrowing Down
Music
Literature
Fictitious Literature
False Beginning Here Plato accepts as a fact that education begins with something which is by definition false. Given his passion for the truth this certainly poses a problem. But the beginning of education cannot take any other course - the age of children, being entirely unsuitable for physical practices (despite some contemporary attempts in competitive gymnastic), requires to start with story telling (mythology). The question is only whether the stories made up for that purpose are conceived fittingly for children or not.
Imitative Natures Children are like sponges - they absorb everything they see, hear or are exposed to. This fact underscores the importance of proper role models. Aside from their family members that are natural and immediate role models children drew their ideal figures from the stories about the gods and heroes. This is why Plato pay so much attention to the content of the stories and their moral.
Censorship Since the objective of education is character building, and since art has a direct impact on the young, it is necessary to institute a censorship. Thus in order to protect children from negative influences Plato does not shun from open paternalism. We cannot allow our children to be exposed to inappropriate contents. Therefore a commission of censors will be instituted (a far predecessor of our current FCC) to review the existing stories and to "rate" them either by (a) entirely discarding them (this fate will befall the majority), or (b) by editing and approving them (obviously some stories are good and should pass the purge). The process of revisiting the existing fictions should start with the greatest storytellers - Homer and Hesiod, for "you may find the model of the lesser in the greater". Therefore, Plato does not deal with the more popular versions of the grand myths; he believes that what he finds in the greater models will apply to their lesser imitations the majority of which deserve to be discarded. Almost all common stories are unsuitable for children.
  Note: Plato's demand for purging popular stories (fairy tales) and making them fitting for children was masterfully accomplished in our time by Walt Disney. The sanitation was so successful that Disney's versions entirely replaced the vivid originals by Perault, brothers Grimm and H.C. Andersen. Despite some opposition coming from other artists (Tex Avery) and his own creations (Donald Duck) Disney's flat and dull characters serve today as role models for an unreal and false world of pure beauty and innocence. Only recently, the creators of Shrek (Adamson, Asbury and Conrad) have attempted to cast a more relaxed and realistic view on the inherited tales of our Western culture.
Great Storytellers Ancient Greek stories about the gods and heroes were derived mostly from Homer and Hesiod. They were the creators of the Greek pantheon and the founders of Greek education. In that sense they acted as theologians and universal teachers of all the Greeks. But they were first and foremost artists.
   
 
FALSE REPRESENTATIONS
   
  Now Plato reminds us that art in general is just a representation. In particular, however, it could be a good representation or less than a good representation.
Representation
Representation Art in General
Accurate Representation - Resemblance to the Ideal Good Art
Misrepresentation - Dissimilarities and Distortions with/of the Ideal Bad Art
   
Likeness Being a representation art by definition never attains the nature of the original. But it has obligation to come to it as close as possible. If it manages to render the original properly it will show certain likeness and resemblance with the true notions of divinity. Otherwise it will produce erroneous ideas of the divine nature. More often than not artistic representations do not show any resemblance with the original.
   
Moral Obligations Plato is very unhappy about this kind of artistic liberty. He regards it as the betrayal of fundamental moral obligations and goals. Art has to provide "the models of virtuous thought" and represent the good, not to entartain by means of frivolous images and actions.
The good should be represented through the most perfect beings - the gods. And the otherway round, the gods should be portrayed as good and virtuous. If this is not done properly or not at all it is very unlikely that the children will get the right educational message. Then both they and the State will be harmed.
Failure However, art either fails to do that or is not capable of doing justice to the above standards. It feeds on lies and produces lies.
Variety of Falsity It seems that art is not committed to truth at all. On the contrary it prefers falsity. In order to demonstrate how deeply art is associated with untruth Plato distinguishes all possible kinds of lies and then tries to determine the level of falsity that art displays in them. In principle, telling a lie is a fault, but all lies are not the same. It is interesting to note that some lies are worse than others while some may be better than others or even good.
   
White Lies The falsity of fictional literature insofar as it is only fictitious is the most harmless kind of lie. It coincides with the very idea of fairy tales - making up stories about events and personalities just to entertain or educate without contradicting the true nature of the gods and heroes. Since we do not possess direct knowledge of the events that happened at the beginning it is almost inevitable to make a falsehood resemble the truth - the question is only does this representation falsify the religious and moral nature of recounted events.
Bad Lie The situation becomes serious when the falsity of fiction turns into a bad lie. "Bad lies" are much worse than sheer fiction because they are basically misrepresentations that distort the true nature of the gods by attributing to them what is contrary to the very idea of deity. Thus they come down to a kind of slander with regard to divinities.
Greatest Lie

The greatest of all lies (being at the same time a "bad lie") is the story recounted by Hesiod about the succession of Uranus, Cronus and Zeus. Its content is blamable not only because of its indecent details but first and foremost because it sets a very bad example according to which children can punish and incarcerate their parents when the latter act wrongfully.
Note: Plato deals with the same issue in the Euthyphro where he opposes any possibility that children could prosecute parents on legal grounds.
Second Big Lie Right after the "greatest lie" about the infanticides and patricides committed by the first rulers of the Greek Pantheon, Plato places the stories about the marital and family quarrels between Zeus and Here and their unfortunate son Haephestus whom they both mistreated and who in his turn sided times with the father times with the mother in their proverbially rocky relationship.
Quarrels

The stories about the quarrels of gods and heroes like the above mentioned ones are questionable on two grounds:
(a) Religious (they are "unholy"), and (b) Moral (they do not represent "virtuous models").
These stories are plainly "unfit" to be told because they convey wrong messages to the young.

Lie Plato demands that the stories with these episodes be eliminated or at least told only to a limited number of people. In contrast, children should be told that there have been never quarrels not only among the gods but also among the citizens. The latter is an obvious lie, but in view of its moral and educational effect a permissible one.
Policy The inappropriate stories should be flatly eliminated from the educational process.
Justification: Such stories cannot be true. Why should we tell the lies contained in these stories? They hinder our cognitive aspirations and are morally questionable.
What if they are true? If they are true they should not be told. No damage will ensue.
Contingency: If they must be told anyway then only to the initiated few. But in that case the agents must cleanse themselves by an unusually huge sacrifice.
Pedagogy Keeping the truth hidden from those who could be confused by it or morally disoriented because of its content is obviously admissible. But Plato goes a step further. If necessary, lying is preferable over the truth and especially over the negative consequences that may arise from disclosing the unpleasant truth. Thus telling to the young that there have been no quarrels between citizens, although a blatant lie, is better than saying that the gods are responsible for human misfortunes ("bad lying").
 
Bad Lies Good Lies
Quarrels among the gods No quarrels among citizens
Allegory What if the poetical representations are allegorical, that is to say, that they have a hidden symbolical meaning? Even if these stories have an allegorical meaning they are still unsuitable for the education of guardians because they can easily confuse the young minds. Only philosophers can understand how poetical images relate to the perfect nature of the represented. Of course, an allegorical interpretation is preferable over the literal if the latter conveys unacceptable messages but the ideal is always an edifying message.
Note: If we accept the contention that not all people are capable of figuring out the symbolical meaning this would require to temper the wording accordingly. Indeed it seems that Plato allows three different kinds of representations according to the social position of the respective audience.
 
Common People Popular Representations Literal
Guardians Symbolical Representations Allegorical
Rulers Ideal Representations Conceptual
 
If we now put together all the different kinds of falsity that Plato distinguishes with regard to the content of fictitious stories we obtain a two-level moral hierarchy of negative and positive lies. It could be represented on one at the same scale with a divide in the middle:
Kinds of Lies  
 
Types
Nature
Use
Agents
Bad Lies Distortion of Divine Nature Reprehensible Artists
Spoken Lies Expressing Preconcieved Falsity Mostly harmless. Unjustified if fraudulent. All humans
Simple Lies Made up Stories of Events Justified if not offensive Mythologists
Mistakes Erroneous Conceptions Neutral if not affecting the Mind* All humans
    *If this lie plants permanent ignorance about reality in the mind it becomes the worst possible lie.  
Silent Lies Burying Harmful Truths Permissible Founders
Lies in Words Intentional Misrepresentations Useful if Remedial of Harm or Beneficial otherwise

Physicians, Generals,
Officials
Good Lies Whitewash of Reality Justified in Absence of Knowledge Educators, Historians
Noble Lies Manipulation and Ruse Commendable for Strengthening Allegiance Guardians
   
  Almost all of these lies may find application in art. Artists (poets) are guilty or deserved of using them according to the social and moral value of their intentions. Ultimately it is upon the guardians, who are in charge to build the appropriate ideology and outlook, to decide which lies should be permitted and which truths should be banned.
   
Permissible Lies Since art has to conform to religious and moral expectations artists should procure the examples of virtuous thinking and action and in doing this they may use the last three types of lies.
Task

It is not the obligation of the founding fathers to create appropriate stories - only to sift through the existing ones in order to make sure that these conform to the general rules. The founding fathers are expected to formulate those rules by setting the limits of what is pemissible (setting boundaries means shaping).

In what follows we see Socrates leading the process of critical examination (a.k.a. purging) through the four stages of examination.
The discussion encompasses (1) the appropriate characters of representation, (2) the appropriate way of presentation, (3) the appropriate way of musical performance, and (4) the appropriate rhythm of musical/poetical performances.

   
 
TRUE MODELS
   
Models With regard to the content poets should be primarily concerned to represent the true originals to the best of their abilities. The true models for every realm of human endeavor are to be found in the "general forms" that define the limits of what is appropriate and what is not. These forms should be applied to the gods as the ultimate models and the bearers of truth. This requires a different kind of theology - not the one that simply transfers human weaknesses to the images of the gods (anthropomorphism) but the one that will do justice to the highest qualities of their natures (moral theology).
Function Art needs to adjust to the true forms of divinity because it is a means for a higher goal - the sustenance and improvement of the State. It cannot perform this task if it relies on erroneous concepts and negative models. No matter what kind of poetry we are dealing with their representations must be truthful and thematically appropriate.
Note: Plato divides poetry into three classes: epic, lyric and tragic because all three were composed in verses; today none of these must be in verses, not even the poetry in the narrow sense. Thus his meaning of poetry comes closer to the connotation of literature than to poetry in our modern sense.
General (Adequacy) Rule Gods should be represented as they "truly are". This means, notaccording to populr views:
(1) As being responsible for everything that happens (both good and bad).
(2) As changing their appearance, either by disguising themselves or creating illusion of change.
(3) As deceiving and tricking humns.
Assumption The first requirement is to portraye the gods as "truly good".
How does Plato know what is the true nature of the gods? From the notion of God, or better to say, from the rational concept of deity. It is inconceivable that God could be bad - in that case he would not deserve veneration.
Inference If God must be good several implications necessarily follow about the gods and their nature. Plato draws them in the following sequence:
   
 
  Represented as they truly are  
   
Implications
1 God is good. Being truly good.
2 What is good is not hurtful. Being not hurtful.
3 What is not hurtful does not hurt. Not hurting.
4 What does not hurt does not cause evil. Doing no evil.
5 God cannot cause evil. Causing no evil.

Therefore God is the cause of only the good things.
  It is wrong to represent the gods as responsible for everything that happens. They are extremely powerful, certainly much more powerful than humans, but they are not capable of wrongdoing. To be sure, they can physically do everything, but doing harm and evil is not compatible with their nature which is good. (Plato does not address the interesting question why the gods do not prevent evil, presumably because they ar not that powerful or perhap not that much involved in human affairs.)
 

From the above considerations Plato derives his first principle of representation.

1) What does not cause evil is good.
2) The good is advantageous.
3) God causes well-being.

 

1st Principle

Qualified Causation

The good causes only good things. Therefore God causes only a few things - those that are good (this principle is contrary to common notions and poetical images of Zeus dispensing both the good and ill). The fact that God causes only good things does not mean that all good things are caused by him. Good things in life are scarce but some are to be attributed to man and his actions. Men are responsible both for all evil and some good things.
Note: Plato here talks about God in singular because he has in mind the general nature of the gods - it is good, beneficial, cannot do any harm and cause evil.
Base Acts Even less should be gods accused of doing despicable things, like not keeping their word or breaking treaties. These are forms of evil just like instigating strife and contention among humans and the gods.
Note: Plato explicitly rejects any involvement of Zeus and Athene in the treacherous attack on Menelaus. This was the work of Pandarus, the leader of the Lydians in the Trojan war. He also vehemently denies that strife and contention among the gods and humans were instigated by Themis and Zeus.
Suffering

Suffering is undoubtedly a kind of evil. Myths abound with stories about suffering. However it does have anything to do with the gods. The gods refrain from causing evil and suffering except in the form of deserved punishment. Therefore all those examples of torture, murder, and inflicted miseries are either caused by humans or are punishments for some violations of the divine order (cf. the story of Niobe). And those who are punished by the gods are always better for it even though they may appear miserable. But the gods are not the authors of their misery.

Note: Plato clings to the Socratic tenet that crime entails punishment which is a form of good - the perpetrator is better for it. It is therefore the right of the wicked to be punished and nobody is justified to deprive him of that benefit.

2nd Principle:
Immutability

The second principle of theology states that the gods do not change under the influence of external causes.
  There are four kinds of possible change that are sometimes attributed to the gods.

Variety of Change:

A From without B From within
B1 True transformation B2 Semblance of change

Plato denies any change of the gods both in the sense of A and B (including subdivision into B1 and B2).

External Influence Plato first rejects change under external influences. Analogy with health: the healthiest human frame is least liable to be affected by external influences. Nothing coming from without could compel the gods to change for they are good, healthy and wise and these characteristics resist any change.
Analogy
  Healthy Flourishing Good Wisest God
  Body Plant Artifact Soul God
Quality Strongest Healthiest Fullest Vigour Enduring Self-contained Perfect
Outcome Least liable to be affected by food and drink Least suffering from wind and heat Least alterable Least confused Most resistent

The principle of the above reasoning is that the better condition of something is the less liable or prone it is to change. Since God is perfect he is the most resistant to any change.
Transformation The gods can only change by themselves. This is a logical possibility. But it is practically ruled out. Why should they resort to this possibility? Change is a sign of imperfection and thus incompatible with the true God's nature which is pure virtue and beauty. The gods can change only to worse but that would be contrary to the quality of their nature: they are the fairest and best of all beings. Therefore they forever retain their own (one) form. Accordingly, to ascribe self-transformation to God is ludicrous.
3rd Principle:
Self-Identity 		The gods remain self-identical and unchangeable. Gods are absolutely simple both in their thoughts and their deeds. Therefore they do not change their shape and appearance - despite popular beliefs.
God is "one and the same immutably fixed in his own proper image".
Hence Plato repudiates the polymorphism of the Greek gods as it is portrayed by Homer and Hesiod.
Various Forms Plato dismisses popular stories depicting the gods as assuming "all sorts of forms", changing their appearance or simply roaming the land by night in disguise.
Not even Proteus, who has become the epitome of miraculous transformations, should be accused of changing his appearance, let alone Thetis or Hera or any other god.
These stories are pedagogically detrimental (can scare children) and religiously blasphemous (as they attribute low motives to the deities) in accounting for their changes.
Superstition But the gods, while remaining the same, may induce the semblance of transformation to the mortals. Yes, but they are not evil spirits, demons, wizards or magicians that trick humans. Therefore they do not put forth a phantom of themselves. God does not deceive by sign, or word, by dream or waking vision. Believing the contrary is a kind of superstition. Plato rejects superstitious and scary stories that are supposed to frighten readers (like those about vampires walking by night).
Deception Disguising themselves and deceiving humans is tantamount to lying. All the more as the humans cannot penetrate divine deception. But this is precisely the reason why the gods, being good and perfect, do not deceive. Otherwise they would be guilty of commiting the most eggregious kind of lie. It is therefore understandable that Plato speaks about lying in the continuation of his discussion of change and deception (thus this is not a diggression).
True Lie

To attribute lying and intentional deception of this kind to the gods is in itself a big lie. Being very poweful, the gods could deceive thoroughly. But they do not need that deception no more than using tricks and ruses that are petty. Big deception is incompatible with their nature and their will. To be surethey can induce a powerful deception that would be very believable. Such a deception would generate a true lie because it would plant itself deeply in the sould of man and would entirely blind them for the true foundations of reality. Succumbing to falsity of that magnitude unknowingly or inflicting it involuntarily on oneself is the most serious kind of lie.
Now we realize that the previous table of falsity must be expanded by including the lies that are the most eggregious violation of the educational function of poetry. Plato calls them the "true lies". They could be defined as follows:
Objective Lie
Type Nature Agents Victims Divine Use
True Lie Inflicted or Embraced
Ignorance of true Reality 		Poets
and
Rhapsodes		 Artists and their Audience
 No
Ignorance The falsity of the so called "true lies" is the worst of all because it affects the condition of our mind - it occurs without our conscious consent but nonetheless blinds us for the true form of internal or external reality. A "true lie" affects both our language and our mind. Moreover, true lies change our views and apprehension of reality and turn our whole existence into falsity. This fateful lack of knowledge, responsible for the deplorable conditions of the existing constitution, is the "state of nature" that Plato strives to overcome with his enlightenment project.
Unintentional Artists typically do not lie intentionally. They believe what they say or paint is true. But precisely because of this commit true lies and are therefore detrimental. Ultimately it does not matter much whether that condition of profound falsity was self-inflicted or induced through artistic influence. It seriously hinders our ability to understand ourselves and the world and is consequently something both the gods and humans hate the most (nobody wants to be deceived about important matters). The falsity arising from the ignorance of the highest reality settles in the soul and determines negatively our identity and conduct.
Lie in Words Believing in lies could be much more detrimental than spreading them. A lie about higher realities, either produced or accepted, is more false than simple "lies in words". While common lies may be deceptive in some regards their subject is not so important as the one presented in art and received by the audience. And certainly it does not penetrate the inwardness of our mental life since it does not plant ignorance in our mental state. Therefore the damage caused by art and unsuspected consumption of art that produces true lies is much bigger both in scope and depth. For Plato, to bring oneself in a state that makes the person gullible (credulous to lies) is more consequential than to make a false statement of your own in words. The latter is just "an imitation" or "a shadowy image" of a previous affection while the state of mind may remain unaffected. So you may still know the truth while lying in words to other or at least you know that you do not possess the required knowledge when making false statements. Therefore that falsity is not a pure and unadulterated - it retains a semblance of truth (otherwise it would not be believable).
 
Bad Lies
Slenderous Distortion

Good Lies
Beneficial Distortion
True Lies
Adopted Ignorance

Common Lies
Verbal
Falsity

Useful Lie To lie intentionally in the manner of an (unsuccessful) imitation of truth is less damaging mentally than to be ignorant of the truth or to be in a state of self-delusion as to the truth. Plato vigorously condemns the ignorance that leads into self-delusion (pseudesthai) whereas his criticism of untruthfulness stemming from spoken lies remains selective. Whenever the benefit of lying outweighs the harm of not-telling the truth or shading it (against enemies, to save friends, to protect the State or religion) Plato seems to endorse lying (or at least allows whitewash, embellishment). He singles out at least three situations when lying is permissible and useful:
Use Situation Benefit
Against Enemy War, Battle Attain Victory
Prevention Illness, Despondency Save a Friend
Reconstruction Recounting Past Filling Gaps
Deceiving enemy is justified no less than lying to a derranged friend in order to save him/her of hurting herself/himself. If we do not possess direct knowledge of events we are permitted to make sense out of scanty evidence and make what is inevitably false look like truth (this seems to be a valid description of the historical method practiced even nowadays).
  Note: Overall though Plato regards lying as reprehensible especially if it concerns self-awareness and the knowledge of reality. This is the main reason why he chastises the workings of those artists that are instrumental in preventing people to realize the truth about themselves and higher realities.
 
True Lie Unadulterated Falsehood Affecting Soul Hated by Humans and Gods Contrary to Divine Nature
Lie in Words Shading the Truth Affecting Language Useful for Humans Useless to the gods
3rd Principle
Truthfulness		 However prone to allow useful lies in the State Plato never ascribes useful lying to the gods - they do not have any need for it and consequently no use.
Therefore the gods are always truthful.
Gods are incapable of any falsehood: they "are simple and true both in word and deed".
They know the past and do not have to distort it or to fabricate the facts (inventions).
They do not have enemies to be afraid of nor friends they are concerned for. Thus they do not need to deceive them for protection.
Deception They do not deceive by words or signs, they do not induce deceptive dreams or images.
Note: Plato repudiates Aeschylus for depicting Thetis (mother of Achilles) as accusing Apollo for the alleged breach of his own promise to protect her son.
  The above principles must be respected in artistic representations.
The following table shows the good along with the bad forms of divine representation.
Forms of Theology  
 
  Inadmissible
Appropriate
1 Distorting - telling bad lies. Depicting true nature.
2 Ascribing unqualified causation (including evil). Ascribing qualified causation (of the good only).
3 Ascribing change and susceptibility to external impact. Ascribing permanence and immutability (wholesome).
4 Ascribing self-transformation (deterioration). Ascribing self-identity with the proper image (virtue).
5 Attributing deception and true lies. Attributing truthfulness and self-awareness.
Reformed Art By virtue of a comparison of appropriate with inappropriate representations this table details how religious topics are to be treated in artistic representations within the State. Strictly speaking, there is not much left to represent since the gods are now conceived as perfect and above human frame of reference. The gods of poets are being replaced by the gods of philosophers.
   
Influence of Art Since the existing art represents the gods as giving birth in blood and violence, as committing incest and disrespecting all family rules, as undergoing all sorts of change and being engaged in different kinds of deception and criminal conduct, poetry is less than a representation. It is a gross misrepresentation of the divine nature standing thus far away from the original.
The problem, however, at this point is not so much a misrepresentation of the gods far removed from reality but a misguided influence of the representations to the political reality of the state. Artistic misrepresentation of the divine conduct entices a really reprehensible and detrimental conduct at the receiving end of the above chain - it directly affects the souls of the audience and transmits the same negative passions into them. The last thing the founders of a State want is to allow the poetic representations of the divine frenzy shape the guardians into the "mad dogs" that may turn against their own citizens.
   
 
Ontological status
Cognitive status
Practical Status
True original Self-identity (truth) Absolutely good
Artistic representation Shadow of likeness Relatively moral
Misrepresentation Less than shadow Immoral and bad
   
Practical Consequences

Art is not practiced for its own sake. It is subservient to the higher goals of the State. Because of the inherent distortions and erroneous concepts that art nourishes the traditional epic poetry cannot serve as the reservoir of our beliefs and values in its entirety. Given the harming influence of many passages in Homer and Hesiod they cannot survive in their current form. It is offensive and justifiably meets condemnation. "Then the lying poet has no place in our idea of God." This practically means, such an artist will be denied state support (no taxpayer's money and no national endowment will be available) and his works will not be included in the instruction of the young (it will have no place in education).

Ancient Measures Arousing Anger Refused Chorus Not in Curriculum
Modern Measures Causing Protest Denied Grants No Coverage

 

(I) FORMS OF MORALITY AND ART

 
Imitation of Virtue
Book III  
386a-392c Unlike book two, which addresses educational needs of children with regard to the religiously inspired stories, book three deals with the young men who are in their teens and need suitable moral instruction for real life situations. Religious and pedagogical concerns are still valid but Plato now evaluates the inherited tales primarily with regard to their moral and practical impact on the youth.
Topic Right from the beginning Plato asserts that religious and moral principles must be accepted "if we mean them (children) to honor the gods", respect "parents" and "value the friendship with each other". However, the two last mentioned concerns are not theological but clearly moral and social.
Honouring Gods Honouring Parents Valuing Friendship
Religion Morality Sociability

Thus, after establishing the true notions about the gods Plato moves to another level where he depicts the forms of morality, human conduct and character building.
Composition The discussion in book 3 could be said to be divided into 4 major parts.
 
(1) Content
(2) Style
(3) Melody
(4) Rhythm
Matter
Form
Scale
Foot
Subjects
Manner
Harmony
Metre
  The first part deals with the appropriate and inappropriate representations of various states of mind and respective affections (the content of poetical representations).
The second part is about poetical style (the form of representations).
The third and fourth sections (they could be viewed as subsections of the second part) deal with the musical components in poetical representations.
   
  (1) SUBJECTS OF REPRESENTATION
   
Models In order to understand the emphasis put by Plato on the content of poetry we need to bear in mind that the subjects of poetical representations were the gods, demigods, heroes, great men of the past and great inhabitants of the underworld. In other words, poetry was about the most important beings in the collective consciousness of the Greeks. Having discussed how the representations of the gods can influence the guardians Socrates now tackles their more human counterparts who directly provide models for the future guardians.
Courage

Courage is the first desirable feature of those who are to become guardians. For the Greeks, courage was practically equal to fearlessness of death. Courage requires both the appreciation of danger and the ability to overcome fear.

Virtue Corruption
Courage Fear
Manliness Effemination
Firmness Softness

 
Fear Admittedly fear is the main obstacle on the road to courage. Hence, it is critical both to find out (1) what generates fear, and (2) how to overcome it.
Plato was convinced that nobody can be fearless of death if they believe "the world below to be real and horrible".
The tales about Hades inevitably make the nerves "excitable and effeminate".
Underworld The Greeks did not believe in a transcendent afterlife happening somewhere in the sky. The only form of post mortem existence was for them a kind of vegetative state ("no mind") in the underworld. As a big unknown the underworld was an inexhaustible source of fears. Since courage in the above defined sense comes down to the preparedness for death the images of the underworld were certainly a factor in warfare and consequently they affected the readiness of guardians to defend the State.
Principles In order to diffuse the fear from death Plato advances the following argument. (1) Those who are supposed to stand for freedom must fear bondage more than death.
(2) It would be self-contradictory for them to choose surrender over death.
(3) Death is better than disgrace and slavery.
Therefore death is not the most horrifying thing that can happen (disgrace and bondage are worse).
Consequently, we need to prepare guardians for death if the ultimate sacrifice is necessary.
Note: By the end of the last book Plato indicates some rewards for those who have fallen for the State. In keeping with this (although peppered with a more ponounced intellectual components), Plato defines philosophy as an "exercise in dying" (Phaedo) that ultimately enables the good people to attain the realm of eternal forms.
Embellishment and Censorship Hence Plato takes action on this matter and asks poets to change the tune and instead of vilifying Hades start commending the "world below" so that it could appear less horrid (certainly not an easy task). Plato was more realistic in simply censuring the "obnoxious" passages and the "appalling" names for the underworld although the very abundance of negative images and verses ("ghosts under the earth", "sapple shades") indicates that the deletion of some poetical descriptions will not obliterate the popular conception of the squalid, dark and cold Hades.
  Note: Plato does not deny that poetical descriptions of Hades may have certain charm, but he believes their moral message is destructive. He concedes that these stories may have some other use but insists they should be stricken out because they render the young too excitable.
  Plato assimilates fearlessness both to standing ground in war and firmness with regard to the loss of the dearest ones or of fortune.
Firmness "The good man will not consider death terrible to any other good man who is his comrade."
"And for this reason the loss of a son or brother, or the deprivation of fortune, is to him of all men least terrible."
Loss
Awareness of Danger + overcoming fear + staying firm in loss

The loss of the dear ones introduces another topic - how to face death of others and material damages.
   
Equanimity
Virtue Corruption
Equanimity Excitation
Lamentations

Equanimity is not exactly a virtue but rather a sign of strong character. Excessive emotions are incompatible with temperance.

Plato condemns the extravagant manifestations of mourning and stresses instead composure as a sign of pride and self-sufficiency. It is inappropriate to depict "famous men" engaging themselves in excessive grief and beseeching (they befall women or base individuals rather than the role models). Even less to ascribe to heroes and the gods similar emotions.
Note: With his usual psychological acuteness Plato has noticed that in grief we often pity not the lost person but ourselves. "How will I cope with the adversities now that you are gone?" This is why he counters the excessive mournfulness with the idea of self-sufficiency that makes the happiness of a good man his unalienable possession. Unlike Aristotle, Plato believes that it does not necessarily include relatives, friends and fortune.

  A good man who is brave will bear calmly any loss of relatives or friends.
   
Laughter This does not mean that Plato condones joyfulness over sorrow. The role models of the future rulers are rather stern and withdrawn. They do not laugh and cut lose. Plato applies the same rule for both poles of emotional spectrum: persons of worth should not allow themselves to be overcome by any excessive emotion and laughter is one such emotion. Reason: Laughter easily turns into violent reactions. Therefore laughter is even less appropriate in representing the gods (Plato wants to make them appear serious and stern like the bosses who act themselves).
 
Affection Defect
Whining, Wailing Getting Weak and Soft
Laughing Losing Control
   
Composure Along with the factors that hinder people to acquire courage Plato examines the affections that may prevent them to keep composure. He especially targets weeping, wining, whining, weeping, and lamentations. There is no reason to sorrow the departure of somebody who has died for the cause. But there ar many reasons not to get overcome by these negative emotions that make us vulnerable and prone to excess.
The descriptions of sorrowful gods are rather laughable because the gods are emotionless. Attributing affections to heroes may look more natural but it is only more dangerous - for it sets bad examples and can affect the conduct of the audience negatively.
Great Man From this description emerges a picture of a great man that Plato has in mind while portraying the role models for the guardians. A great man is balanced and confident. He cannot be easily excited or moved. "Touchy-feely" products of art are nocious. He is self-confident and balanced. He cannot be easily excited or moved. Excessive emotions are incompatible with his composure. (His emotionless appearance and arrogance make him an ancient counterpart of modern jerks.) Of course, if this i the correct image of greatness, many characteristics attributed to heroes in the epics must be stricken out. The great man (apparentlyly a sexist and elitist) is the "famous man" who owes his celebrity status to his virtue which in turn makes him a role model.
  The left column lists the qualities that a good character is expected to embody. The overarching notion for the positive qualities is temperance (sophrosyne). Its paramount dimension is Self-control (see below). The features on the right side are the product of the "laxity of morals".
The question is now: How to overcome the negative habits and traits developed under the influence of poetry? Here is the list of steps that need to be taken in to address the negative impact of poetry on the young. Here are some of the measures in the order of Plato's exposition:
Measures
Do not have fear of death
Commend the underworld as better than slavery
Expunge obnoxious passages that spread fear
Avoid weeping and wailing
Refrain from laughter
Be firm, honest and enduring
Be respectful
If necessary lie for the good
   
Truthfulness: In book 3 Plato resumes the discussion of lying from the previous book but he approaches the issue from a different angle. The difference is that Plato now unambiguously requires from citizens to tell the truth. Seemingly this contradicts his previous permission to use lies in certain situations. Upon scrutiny, we realize, he only qualifies the previous statements. There is a good reason for this qulification. If temperance requires obedience, the latter couldbe effective only if it excludes lying from the subordinates. Therefore truthfulness is constitutive for obedience to higher authority. The rulers of the State are still permitted to lie for the public good because they know what is beneficial both for the state and citizens.
Subordination The subordinates may lie to each other but under no circumstances to the superiors. On the contrary, accepting this subordination is a sign of growing temperance, which explains the insertion of this excursion on lying in the section dealing with virtues.
Privilege of Lying Thus we have an unequally distributed privilege of lying. By means of several analogies Plato draws the unequal privilege of lying along the following lines of cognitive and social disparities:.
Asymmetric Relations
Superior Subordinate
Rulers Citizens
Physicians Patients
Trainers Trainees
Captains Sailors
Parents Children
Paternalism Those in position of power or authority (left column) are permitted to lie either for some utilitarian purposes or for the benefit of the state (noble lies). If rulers lie that is a kind of medicine, remedial tool, applied either for the sake of prevention (defending the State) or stability (maintaining the internal order). The relation does not hold the other way round. If lying is a "medicine" then it must be administred by the doctors, not by patients themselves. Lying to the rulers (doctors) is misplaced - socially speaking it is the most destructive lie.
  The rulers are so to speak forced to lie and use ruse because the subjects are not always capable to apprehend the truth without succumbing to certain temptations and making false choices. Therefore manipulation is in their own interest especially if the only available alternative is physical force and open oppression.
  Note: When Themistocles lied to the citizens of Athens that the island of Aegina was a threat that was justified because only so he could have gained them over to start building a new fleet which proves decisive in the war against the Persians.
Temperance However, the rule of temperance holds equally for the rulers and citizens. Of course, the rulers are expected to show self-restraint while the citizens shoul demonstrate respect.
  Temperance (sophrosyne) has three sides: obedience, control of drives and control of wantonness.
 
Obedience + control of appetites + self-restraint
Respect Temperance manifests itself as respect for the superiors, intemperance as disrespect toward them. It is proper to march in "silent awe" of leaders, not to treat them like Achilles treated Agamemnon. Already the abusive language can lead to intemperance (Jesus of Nazareth will regard calling names as a serious moral offense that could entail damnation). Therefore watch your words for impertinence no matter how amusing they may be.
  If we put together all the negative and positive forms of conduct discussed by Plato in this section we obtain the following comparative table of desirable and undesirable human characteristics:
Forms of Morality:
Appropriate Inappropriate
pride mourning
respect insolence
self-sufficiency dependency
self-control incontinence
sternness laxity
liberality avarice
honesty corruption
moderation gluttony
noblesse meanness
endurance weakness
Evaluation of Art Art is not free - it has to perform certain functions. Its value is determined by both religious and moral propriety of its representations. Therefore the artistic licence in expression must be restrained to follow the following demarcation.
 
Virtue Corruption
Temperance Insolence
Propriety It is inappropriate to depict the gods and heroes (= role models) as being overcome either by sorrow or laughter, or moved by lust, avarice and meanness. These are human weaknesses that do not befit the gods and heroes. Therefore it is unbelievable that Achilles, the son of a goddess and the greatest hero, "was so disordered in his wits as to be at one time the slave of two seemingly inconsistent passions, meanness, not untainted by avrice, combined with overweening contempt of gods and men".
This statement summarizes the three main violations of the temperance norm in Homer's depiction of Achilles:
(1) the cruel and inhuman treatment of the slained enemy,
(2) the consent to return his body for burrial not for moral reasons but owing to a bribe, and
(3) the utter disrespect not only for the superiors but for the gods as well (compare the words directed to Apollo).
  Only virtues and appropriate affections are permissible in artistic representations of the gods, demigods, heroes and guardians.
What kind of actions could be ascribed to different beings shows the following table:
 
  Lamentations Insolence Incontinence Meaness